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INDEX
A man drives as he lives, 338
AAAM, 22
Abbreviated Injury Scale. See AIS
ABS. See Antilock brakes
Accident, 412. See Term accident
Accident or Suicide? Destruction by Automobile, 224
Accident proneness, 13
Adelaide, Australia, 16, 209, 210, 245, 334, 335 (traffic photograph)
Administrative license revocation, 253
Adolescent. See Young drivers
Adolescent problem behavior syndrome, 224
Advertising, 343
airbags, 400
alcohol, 241, 261-64, 265
amount spent on, 261
to underage drinkers, 263
beer, 238, 258, 262, 263
drink most advertised, 262
influence on behavior, 344, 401, 422
tobacco, 343
Age (see also Older drivers; Young drivers)
effect on survivability, 132-37, 139-41
female, 134-37, 140
male, 133-37, 139
Airbag, (see also Airbag mandate), 381, Chapters 12 and 15
benefit-cost comparison, 314-15, 320-21
benefits, 314-15, 316-18
Canada, 405
flaw in estimating, 326
better than belts (Joan Claybrook TV comments), 396
children, 312, 391, 392
costs, 85, 314-15, 318-20, 322, 323, 400
annual, 320
comfort and convenience, 324
installing, 319, 321
replacement, 318, 319
deployment threshold, 273, 276, 304
deployments, 310, 311
design dilemma, 323
direction of impact, 312
distraction, 399
effectiveness if belt use increases, 327
effectiveness, fatalities, 285-87, 285, 286, 288, 315, 317, 381, 394, 395, 399
first estimate of, 392
use to justify mandate, 392-96
effectiveness, injuries, 315, 317, 394, 399
use to justify mandate, 392-96
ethics of, 324-26
fatalities caused by, 302, 312
decline in, 400
to children, 312, 397
to females, 312, 325, 397
fatalities with deployment, 311
fatalities without deployment, 313
injuries caused, 302, 312, 322
asthma, 322
gender difference in, 129, 324
to eyes, 322
to females, 312
to hearing, 322
to upper extremities, 324
number in fleet, 310
out of position, 312, 390
proper government role, 328
remove belts, 393
second generation, 311, 321-22, 326, 397
speed-reduction equivalent, 216
Airbag mandate, 309, 328, 392-400, 402, 405, 406
5 reasons given for, 399
Airbag mandate, continued
auto industry response to, 400
prevented belt laws, 396
Airline safety, 353-55, 360, 414
age of pilot, 4
pilot behavior, 355
zero 2002 deaths, 354, 414
Airship crashes, 5-6
AIS, 24, 316, 321, 322, 324, 392, 394
description of, 22
probability of death, 23
Akron, 5
Alabama, 200
Alaska, 99, 100, 200
Alcohol (see also Advertising, Alcohol content; Blood Alcohol Concentration; Drunk driving; Per se laws), Chapter 10
absorption and elimination, 241-43
drink concentration, 241
effect of food, 241
Widmark's Beta, 241
availability of, 258-60
minimum drinking age laws, 259
prohibition, 258, 264
effect on consumption, 259
strike at Norway monopoly, 259
zero-tolerance, 259
beneficial effects of, 237
causal role, 250-51
cost, 260-61
Federal Excise Tax, 260, 264
price elasticity, 260
crash role by severity, 252
effect on behavior, 243, 244, 245-46, 248
effect on crash risk, 246-48
compared to speeding, 342
effect on performance, 243, 244-45
in driving simulators, 189
literature on, 238, 244
effect on survivability, 141-44, 243
'roll with punches', 141
difficulties in FARS data, 142
elevator analogy, 142
fatality risk versus BAC, 143
two-car crashes used to measure, 143
history, 237, 243, 246
ignition interlock systems, 257
in fatally injured drivers, 248-50, 251
in fatally injured passengers, 249
in fatally injured pedestrians, 248-50
involved in crashes in China, 338
literature on, 237
measurement of, 238-40
content in human body, 239-40
National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984, 259
random breath testing, 254-55
New South Wales, Australia, 254
sales of, 261, 262
to problem drinkers, 263
sobriety checkpoints, 255
US fatalities involving, 250-51
prevented by countermeasures, 251
Alcohol content
by type of drink, 238, 239
alcohol free beer, 238
Gay-Lussac system, 239
measurement of, 238-40
proof, UK, 239
proof, US, 238, 239
Alcohol Test Result. See Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC)
Altruism, 378
American Association for Retired Persons (AARP), 147
American Graffiti, 224
American Medical Association (AMA), 147, 262
Antilock brakes (ABS), 98, 107-11, 206
are they desirable, 111
performance of, 107
rear-impact crashes, 108
rollover risk, 109, 110
tailgating, 110
Antiquity, 2, 237, 347
Argentina, 43
Arizona, 200
Arkansas, 200
Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine (AAAM), 22
Asthma from airbag deployment, 322
At fault crashes, 364, 365-66
Australia, 16, 43, 197, 209, 245, 254, 295, 334, 345, 381, 382, 385, 400, 405, 417
Austria, 381
Autobahn, 215
Autocar, 36
Automatic monitoring. See Monitoring, automatic
Automobile (see also Terminology, car)
first (Karl Benz), 36
Autopsy, 20, 142, 247, 392
Average
behavior produces average crash risk, 360
caution in interpreting, 60
driver, 360
most are better than average, 363
self assessment compared to, 361-64
Babies
distraction in rear seat, 196
risk taking by, 227
fatalities, 227, 228
BAC. See Blood Alcohol Concentration
Bacchus, 237
Battle deaths, 1
Beginning driver, 191
crash rates, 193-94
eye fixations, 192
rollover, 194
Behavior. See Driver behavior
Behavior change, 348
avoid airbag, 326, 397
occupant protection, 300
table showing related crash risk change, 336
UK belt law, 300
Behavior response. See Behavior change
Belfast, 4
Beliefs, 402
Belt wearing laws, 295-97, 404-6
benefits of, 297-98
first, 295
jury must not know, 403
objections to, 302
primary enforcement, 297
secondary enforcement, 295, 297
UK, 296, 300
Belts, lap/shoulder (see also Belt wearing laws), 274-83
effectiveness of, 276-83
by car mass, 282
by driver age, 282
dependence on severity, 275
difficulties in estimating, 277
direction of impact, 280, 281
ejection, 280, 281
fatality reducing mechanisms, 280, 281
field, 273, 287-92
for four-door cars, 282
for two-door cars, 282
load limiters, 303
more precise estimates of, 303
pretensioners, 303
problems in determining, 53
rollover, 281, 282
selective recruitment, 289-92
severity-specific, 273, 274, 276
single-vehicle crashes, 282
when used, 273, 279
miscoding of belt use, 278
use of
by fatalities compared to observed drivers, 52
by surviving occupants, 20
fatality reductions from increasing, 292-98
inferred from fatalities, 290
jury must not know, 403
Belts, lap-only in rear, effectiveness, 283-84
Benefit-cost comparison
of airbag, 314-15, 320-21
of new safety approach, 421-22
Benz, Karl
first automobile, 36
limited vehicle market, 190
Bible, 237, 243
Bicyclist fatalities, 45, 414
Bikini swimsuit, 60
Billion, definition of, 9
Biomechanics, 270
Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC), 239-40
formula to compute, 242
interpret with caution in FARS, 248
legal limit, 406
table of values after drinking, 243
what is appropriate limit, 256
Blood Alcohol Level (BAL), same as Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC)
Borkenstein, Robert, 240, 246
Braking reaction time, 182
Brazil, 43
Breasts, average number per capita, 60
Breathalyzer, 240, 246
British Road Safety Act of 1967, 253
Bullet vehicle, 68
Bus passengers, 339
CAFE. See Corporate Average Fuel Economy
Cairo, Egypt, 334, 335 (traffic photograph)
California, 13, 200
Cameras, red-light, 418
Canada, 31-33, 43, 101, 197, 253, 341, 381, 382, 385, 390, 404, 405, 417
Nova Scotia, 200
Ontario, 101, 102, 200, 346, 404
Quebec, 200
Candy Lightner, 257
Captain Edward J. Smith, 3-4
Car mass. See Vehicle mass and size
Car size. See Vehicle mass and size
Carding drivers, 259
Carter, Jimmy, 392
Case-control, 209-10, 209-10, 211
alcohol and crash risk, 246
possible flaw in, 247
rural speeds, 210-11
urban speeds, 209-10
Case-crossover, cell phone risk, 196
Cell phone, 191
crash risk, 196
distraction, 196
Center high mounted stop lamp, 185
experimental evaluation, 185
in-use evaluation, 186
novelty effect, 186
Center seat, 54
Children
fatalities
airbag caused, 397
as drivers, 227, 228
as pedestrians, 374
in rear seats, 196, 324
China, 37, 41, 43
Claybrook, Joan, 392, 395, 396, 401
Clinton, Bill, 1
Clock points, 55
Closed-loop compensatory feedback control process, 174
Cochrane Library, 197
Coffee, 250
Cohort, 161
Collapsible steering column, 113, 272
Collision Deformation Code, 276, 277, 289
Colorado, 200
Columbine High School shootings, 1
Company vehicles, 377
Congress, US, 253
Connecticut, 200, 257
Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE), 88-91
changing mix of vehicles, 94
consumer choice, 89
effect on fuel use, 90
300-pound patient, 91
tax, 91
effect on safety, 89, 91
difficult to estimate, 92
National Academies report, 89
SUV, 89, 90, 91, 93
Cost of US traffic crashes, 1, 24-25
Cost-benefit comparison. See Benefit-cost comparison
Countries
Argentina, 43
Australia, 16, 43, 197, 209, 245, 254, 345, 381, 382, 385, 400, 417
Australia,, 334
Austria, 381
Brazil, 43
Canada, 31-33, 43, 101, 197, 253, 341, 381, 382, 385, 390, 417
China, 41, 43
Czech Republic, 43
Denmark, 253, 381, 385
Countries, continued
Egypt, 16, 43, 334
England (UK), 237
Ethiopia, 43
Finland, 21, 161, 187, 225, 253, 381, 385, 400
France, 43, 301, 390
GB (UK), 7, 32, 33, 36, 37, 41, 42, 43, 45, 106, 197, 212, 215, 238, 253, 295, 296, 297, 336, 341, 343, 345, 373, 377, 381, 382, 383, 384, 385, 387, 388, 400, 405, 417
Germany, 36, 43, 80, 176, 215, 381
Ghana, 43
Hungary, 43
Iceland, 381
India, 345
Ireland, 28, 29, 43, 45, 345
Israel, 2, 43, 417
Japan, 42, 43, 176, 345, 381
Kenya, 43, 45
Korea, 43
Lithuania, 30, 31
Luxembourg, 381
Malawi, 43
Malaysia, 345
Mozambique, 42, 43
Netherlands, 42, 43, 226, 381, 385, 400
New Zealand, 43, 199, 381, 400, 417
Nigeria, 43
Northern Ireland (UK), 28, 29
Norway, 42, 43, 110, 187, 253, 381, 385
Poland, 43
Russia, 43
Saudi Arabia, 2
Scotland (UK), 218, 219
Slovak Republic, 43
Slovenia, 43
South Africa, 43
Spain, 43
Sweden, 2, 41, 42, 43, 187, 211, 215, 253, 341, 361, 362, 381, 385, 400, 404
Switzerland, 341, 381, 385
Tanzania, 43
Turkey, 43
US, 2, 36, 37, 41, 42, 43, 45, 106, 334, 341, 343, 362, 381, 382, 385, 390, 400, 402, 404, 417
Zimbabwe, 43
Crash (see also Fatal crash; Terminology, crash)
cost of in US, 1, 24-35
factors in, 334, 339, 355
laboratory provided by, 129, 144
Pan Am 103, 6
Crash avoidance, 4, 113, 199
Crash prevention, terminology, 8
Crash protection (see also Crash worthiness)
theoretical limits of, 304
Crash risk
altruism, 378
incentives, 376
inferred from FARS data, 290
insurance impact on, 376-77
pleasure, 378
unbelted vs belted drivers, 291
table, 292
Crash severity, 25-27
Collision Deformation Code, 276, 277, 289
delta?v (or ?v), 26, 289
extent of deformation, 25
Crashworthiness, 8, 17, 85, 86, 95, 354, 356, 401, 415
of Titanic, 4, 5
Crime rates, 226-27
age dependence, 226, 227
gender dependence, 226, 227
relationship to crash rates, 226, 227, 230
relationship to testosterone, 230
Crocodile, 9, 10
Cross sectional analysis, 160
Czech Republic, 43
DALY (disability-adjusted life year), 23
Danger compensation, 348
Dangerous Liaisons, 347
Daytime running lamps, 187
Definitions. See Terminology
Degree of motorization, 41-44
Delaware, 200
Delta?v (or ?v), 26, 27, 71, 72, 73, 184, 214, 272, 273, 289
aircraft landing, 26
Newtonian mechanics, 70
Demographic factors, 217-19
African American, 217, 218
non-Hispanic black, 218
Denmark, 253, 381, 385
Dionysus, 237
Direction of impact, 55
airbag, 312
belt effectiveness, 280, 281
Disability-adjusted life year (DALY), 23
Distraction, 195-96, 399
experimental data, 195
from airbag, 322
from cell phone, 196
from infant in rear, 196
District of Columbia, 200
Double pair comparison method, 120
numerical example, 122, 123 (table)
possible biases, 130
unsuitable for alcohol and survivability, 142
Drive on left or right, 344-45
Driver. See Beginning driver; Unlicensed driver
Driver behavior, 174, 206-34, 359-60
autonomous, 341
definition of, 206
dominant role in safety, 333, 338, 341
fear, 338, 339
habit, 341
impact of law on, 338, 344, 346
individual, 413
interactive effects, 347
interactive effects, naïve and realistic models, 348-51
mass media effect on, 338, 343, 402
other road users, 413
overconfidence, 361-64
reducing your risk, 371-72
at traffic light, 372
road rage, 343
social norms, 338, 341
Driver education, 197-98, 343
and crash risk, 197
evaluation from world literature, 197
longer term experience, 198
Driver license
age for in US states, 200 (table)
by gender and age, 150
graduated driver license, 199-201
unlicensed drivers male-to-female ratio, 150
Driver performance, 36, 174-202
acquisition of driving skill, 190-94
beginning driver, 191
three phases, 191
definition of, 206
everyone can drive, 190
impact on safety, 194-95
longer term experience, 198
Driver responsibility, 364
Driving is a public activity, 419
Driving simulators, 187-90, 187
driving while blindfolded, 176
measuring alcohol effects, 189
measuring older driver effects, 190
National Advanced Driving Simulator, 190, 245
number in 1970, 188
what they can do, 188
comments from 1991, 190
list published in 1972, 189
what they measure, 188
Driving skill. See Driver performance
Drugs, 247
Drunk driving (see also Alcohol), 237
BAC limit, 252-54
criminal sanctions for, 252-57, 252
Drunkometer, 240
DUI, 237
DWI, 237
Economic depression, 42
Economic principles, 33, 377
Effectiveness (see also Airbags; Belts; Motorcycle, helmets), 273-77
concepts, 274-76
definitions, 273-77
table of estimates, 288
Egypt, 16, 43, 237, 334
Eisenhower, Dwight, 359
Ejection, 51
Ejection, continued
belt effectiveness, 280, 281
belt use, 51
driver age, 51
effect on fatality risk, 51
fraction of deaths due to, 49, 50
Elevator analogy, 142
Emotional stress, 223
Energy Policy and Conservation Act of 1975, 88
Energy required to accelerate, 88
Engineering, traffic, 105-7
reaction time for design, 182
roundabouts, 106
modern roundabouts, 106
design requirements, 107
England (UK), 237
Equity and airbags, 324
Ethanol, 238
Ethics and airbags, 324-26
Ethiopia, 43
Ethyl alcohol, 238
Event data recorders (EDR), 304
Experience, 198
Expert witness, 403
Exposure, 10-11, 17, 53, 86, 96, 143, 160, 196, 247, 310, 409
crocodile, 10
Eye injuries from airbags, 322
Ezra Hauer comment, 112
Factors in crashes
relative importance of, 355
schematic, 334, 339
Family influence, 225
Family members risks, 169, 170
FARS (More than 200 mentions in text)
body type, 50, 52, 68
description of data set, 20
missing values in, 45
suicide excluded, 21
Fatal crash
crash free for 3.5 hours, 58
daily variation, 58
fatalities per crash, 21
fewest in February, 98
first harmful event in, 49
first recorded, 36
involved vehicles per crash, 21
most harmful event in, 49
number of vehicles, 48-49
weather, 101
rate of occurrence, 58
five-minute pattern, 59
Poisson fit, 59
rollover (or overturn), 49
survivors per crash, 21
Fatalities (see also Fatality rate; Fatality reductions from belt use)
airbag, 312, 313
bicyclist, 414
by person killed, 45 (table)
child driver, 227, 228 (table)
definition
FARS, 19
National Safety Council, 20
fetus, 21
first pedestrian, 36
gender dependence, 46
major source of sudden violent death, 28
monthly variation in, 57
passenger, 414
pedestrian, 414
child, 374
probability due to traffic, 162
table of specific values, 163
running red light, 420
traffic relative to all deaths, 161-63
US daily, 1
US monthly, 1
who is killed, 44-48
worldwide, 1, 44, 232
Fatalities (all causes - not just traffic), 44, 161
Fatality Analysis Reporting System. See FARS
Fatality rate
countries, 38, 333, 382
distance rate, 37
by gender and age, 151, 153
GB, 385, 386, 387, 388
US, 37, 38, 39, 40, 385, 386, 387, 388
involvement rates not measured, 129
license rate by gender and age, 152
long term trends in, 37-44
Fatality rate, continued
population rate, 11, 43
by gender and age, 149
related to wealth, 332
time variation in, 38, 40, 42, 333
vehicle rate, 40-44, 43
Australia, Egypt, US, 334
for Australia, 334, 383, 384, 387, 388
for Canada, 383, 384, 387, 388
for China, 41
for Egypt, 334
for GB, 383, 384, 387, 388
for Sweden, 41
for US, 40, 41, 334, 383, 384, 387, 388
zzzzrate of change, 41
four-door vehicles, 63-66
two-door vehicles, 63-66
vehicle factors not measured, 63
yearly rate, 11, 43
by gender and age, 148
for Australia, 383, 387, 388, 400
for Canada, 383, 387, 388, 400
for China, 37, 38
for GB, 383, 387, 388, 400
for US, 37, 38, 383, 387, 388, 400
Fatality reductions from increasing belt use, 292-94, 293, 297
equation, 293
law of increasing returns, 297, 298
Federal Excise Tax on alcohol, 260, 264
Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (FMVSS), 112, 185, 383
combined effectiveness of all standards, 115
effectiveness estimates, 113 (table)
Federal Register, 392
NHTSA airbag effectiveness used to justify mandate, 393
NHTSA estimates of cost savings from removing belts, 393
Feedback (see also Behavior change), 174, 199
aural, 175
closed-loop compensatory feedback control process, 174
proprioceptive, 174, 175
visual, 174
provides '90% of information used to drive', 174
useful field of view, 175
Fetuses killed, 21
Field effectiveness, 273, 287-92
Field of view, 175
Finland, 21, 161, 187, 207, 225, 253, 381, 385, 400
Firearms, 45
First Amendment rights, 422
First fatal crash, 36, 37
Florida, 99, 100, 200, 207, 208
FMVSS. See Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards
Ford Model T, 36
Ford, Henry, 36
Four-door vehicles
belt effectiveness, 282
distance rates, 66
vehicle rates, 63-66
France, 43, 301, 390
Frank Haight, 351
Free speeds, 210
Friedman, Milton, 377
Gay-Lussac system, 239
GB (UK), 32, 33, 36, 37, 41, 43, 106, 197, 212, 215, 238, 253, 295, 296, 297, 336, 341, 343, 345, 373, 377, 381, 382, 385, 405, 417
degree of motorization, 41
fatality rate
per vehicle, 383, 384, 387, 388
per year, 383, 387, 388, 400
terminology, 7
Gender differences
airbag, 131, 324
effect on survivability, 120-32, 137-38
alternate explanations, 131
fundamental origin, 128
suicide seat, 132
Gender ratio. See male-to-female ratio
General Motors (GM), 108, 113, 284, 377, 392, 394, 395, 396
10,000 airbag-equipped vehicle fleet, 395
George Santayana, 401
Georgia, 99, 100, 200
German Autobahns, 215
Germany, 36, 43, 80, 176, 215, 381
Ghana, 43
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 407
Graduated driver license, 199-201
age of licensure in US states, 200 (table)
young driver paradox, 199
Grand Rapids dip, 248
Grand Rapids study, 246
Grand Rapids, Michigan, 246, 247
Granddad risk, 169, 170
Great Britain. See GB
Gross Domestic Product, 1, 8, 25, 319, 332
Haddon Matrix, 355
Haddon, William Jr., 322
10 strategies to reduce risks, 322
Haight, Frank, 351
Hamlet, 5, 192, 347
Harger, Rolla N, 240
Hauer, Ezra, comment, 112
Hawaii, 99, 100, 200
Head restraints, 114
Headway, 367
ABS, 110
recommended, 367
Health analogy, 332
Hearing loss from airbag, 322
Helmets, motorcyle
effectiveness, 284-85
repeal of wearing laws, 298-300
Helsinki bus and streetcar drivers, 207
Henry Ford, 36
Heroes, Rogues, and Lovers, Testosterone and Behavior, 231
Hieroglyphics, 237
Highway Safety Act of 1966, 285, 298
Hindenburg, 5, 6
Holland. See Netherlands
Homicide, 6, 45
by vehicle, 6
Houston, Texas, 221
Hungary, 43
Iceland, 381
Idaho, 200, 253
IIHS, 64, 65, 66
Illinois, 200, 246
Impact clock points, 55
Impairment, 245
Implied consent, 253
Incentives influence crash risk, 376
India, 345
Indiana, 108, 200, 336
Indiana University, 336
Infant driver fatalities, 227, 228 (table)
Injuries (see also Fatalities; Injury rate by population), 22-23
AIS classification, 22
injuries per fatality, 31-33, 31-33
Canada, 31-33, 102
KABCO classification, 22
MAIS classification, 22
reliability of reports of, 28-33
Transport Canada definition, 33
worldwide, 1
Injury rate by population
Ireland (Republic of), 28, 29
Northern Ireland (UK), 28, 29
Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS), 64, 65, 66
Insurance, effect on crash risk, 376-77
Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS), 111
Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS), 111
Interactive effects in evaluation, 347
Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991, 111
International Classification of Diseases, 22
Interpreting risk ratios, 76-77, 85, 166
Interstate. See Roads, Interstate, rural; Roads, Interstate, urban
Inter-vehicular spacing
judgment of, 179
influence of visible roadway, 180
Iowa, 200
Ireland, 28, 29, 43, 345
Ireland, Northern. See Northern Ireland
Israel, 2, 43, 212, 417
Ivory Coast, 295
Japan, 43, 176, 345, 381
Jefferson, Thomas, 237
Jesus, what vehicle to drive, 375
Joan Claybrook, 392, 395, 396, 401
TV comments - airbags better than belts, 396
John McCain, 401
Johnson, Dr. Samuel, 9
Jury, 2, 36, 402, 403
KABCO classification, 22
Kansas, 200
Karl Benz, See Benz, Karl
Kelvin, 16
Kentucky, 200
Kenya, 43
Killed by the airbag, 312, 327
Kilometers per hour (km/h). See Speed
Kilometers per year, 40, 90, 91
Kinetic energy, 67
King Lear, 199, 340
KMT. See Travel per vehicle per year
Korea, 43
KPH (incorrect for km/h). See Speed
Laboratory from crashes, 129, 144
Law, 344-46
heart of US problem, 403
impact of, 344
Law enforcement, 416
effect on casualties, 346
revenue from, 417
traffic tickets, 217-18
Law of increasing returns, 297, 298
Lawyer, 2, 389, 390, 392, 396, 401, 403, 407
Learner driver. See Beginning driver
Learning, spontaneous, 335
Less-motorized countries, 1, 8, 197
License-plate number, 219
Lighter and safer car, 84
Lighting conditions, 102, 103
Lightner, Candy, 257
Litigation impact on US safety, 403
Lithuania, 30, 31
Load limiters, 303
Longer term experience, 198
Longitudinal analysis, 161
Lord Kelvin, 16
Louisiana, 200, 299
Luxembourg, 381
Macbeth, 244
MADD. See Mothers Against Drunk Driving
Maine, 99, 100, 200
MAIS (maximum AIS), 22, 24, 25, 252, 315, 316, 317, 340
numbers sustaining different levels, 24
Malawi, 43, 295
Malaysia, 345
Male-to-female ratio, 44
alcohol absorption, 241
baby and infant driver fatalities, 227
baby and infant pedestrian fatalities, 228, 229 (figure)
crime, 226
implications for interventions, 233
socialization, 232
universal and basic, 233
unlicensed drivers, 150
Maryland, 200
Mass. See Vehicle mass and size
Mass media, 338, 343, 402, 422
Massachusetts, 200
McCain, John, 401
McCarthyism, 344
Mean. See Average
Media paradox, 340
Michigan, 36, 199, 200, 246, 247, 367
Miles per hour (mph). See Speed
Miles per year, 40, 90, 91
Milton Friedman, 377
Minimum drinking age laws, 259
zero tolerance, 259
Minnesota, 99, 100, 200
Mirror, unbreakable, 71
Miscoding of belt use, 278
Mississippi, 200
Missouri, 108, 200
Mobility, 105, 106, 111, 352-53, 374
older drivers, 153
Monetary cost of US crashes, 24-25
Monitoring, automatic, 417-19
advantages, 418
drunk driving, 419
photo radar, 417
policy, 420
Monitoring, automatic, continued
red-light cameras, 418
Montana, 99, 100, 200
Moral hazard, 376
Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD), 257-58, 342, 343, 407
Motives, non-transport, 223, 224
Motorcycle (see also Helmets, motorcyle)
appear further away, 179
fatalities, 45, 125, 126, 128, 131, 285
high risk, 285
older drivers, 285
passenger fatalities, 126
Motorization, 43
Mozambique, 43
mph (miles per hour). See Speed
Multiple-vehicle crashes
belt effectiveness, 282
crash involving 56 vehicles, 49
Multivariate analysis, 116, 333
Muscle power, 2, 270
Nader, Ralph, 390, 391 (photograph), 392, 395, 396
Unsafe at Any Speed, 390
Naive calculation of effectiveness, 288
Naive model of behavior change, 348
NASS, 24, 26, 71, 92, 151, 196, 276, 316
National Academies of Sciences report, 89
National Advanced Driving Simulator, 190, 245
National Automotive Sampling System (NASS), 24, 26, 71, 92, 151, 196, 276, 316
National Automotive Sampling System Crashworthiness Data System (NASS CDS), 24
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. See NHTSA
National Household Travel Survey (NHTS), 151, 152
National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984, 259
National Motor Vehicle Safety Act of 1966, 112
Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey, 218
Natural experiment, 213, 299
Nebraska, 200
Netherlands, 42, 43, 226, 381, 385, 400
Nevada, 200
New Hampshire, 200
New Jersey, 2, 200
New Mexico, 200
New South Wales, Australia, 254
New York, 80, 200, 207, 208
terrorist attack, 1
New Zealand, 43, 199, 381, 400, 417
Newtonian mechanics, 70, 72
NHTS, 151, 152
NHTSA, (More than 100 mentions).
description of Agency, 20
Nigeria, 43
Non-elastic collision, 70
Non-transport motives, 223, 224
North Carolina, 80, 141, 200, 217, 225
North Dakota, 99, 100, 200
Northern Ireland (UK), 28, 29
Norway, 43, 110, 187, 253, 259, 381, 385
Not at fault crashes, 364, 365
Nova Scotia, 200
Novelty effect, 186
Objections to belt wearing laws, 302
Obstetrician, male, 359
Occupancy, 48
Occupant. See Terminology, occupant
Occupant protection (see also Airbags; Belts; Helmets, motorcyle)
behavior change, 300
can it kill, 301
devices
active, 272
belligerent, 400
passive, 272, 397, 399, 400
goal of, 271, 272
limits of, 304
vehicle design, 271
Occupant restraint device same as occupant protection device, 272
Ohio, 200
Oil embargo, 88, 383
Oklahoma, 200
Older drivers, Chapter 7
age is continuous variable, 147
Captain of Titanic, 4
compared to younger, 169, 170
cross sectional compared to longitudinal analyses, 160
distance traveled, 151, 152, 153
fragility, 153
is problem changing, 170-71
license rate, 152
by gender and age, 150
literature on, 147
mobility reduced, 153
motorcyclists, 285
reaction time, 182
risk comparisons using specific examples, 166-70
family, 169, 170
risks to drivers themselves, 147
examples, 168
fatalities per year, 148
population rate, 149
severe crash rates, 154
risks to other road users, 147
examples, 166, 167
pedestrians killed (distance rate), 157, 158
pedestrians killed (license rate), 157, 158
pedestrians killed (population rate), 157
pedestrians killed (yearly rate), 156
simulators for research on, 190
son, dad, granddad, 169, 170
types of crashes, 163-66
rollover, 163, 164
side impact, 164, 165
two-vehicle, 164, 165
unfamiliarity with vehicle, 196
visual acuity, 175
Ontario, 101, 102, 200, 346, 404
Open-loop process, 174
Oregon, 110, 200, 361
Orwellian language, 8
Out of position, 312, 390
Overconfidence, driver, 361-64, 363
explanation of, 363-64
Overtaking, 179, 181
reducing your risk, 374
Overturn. See Rollover
Partner vehicle., 68
Passenger (see also Terminology, passenger
alcohol in fatally injured, 249
fatalities, 45, 46, 414
in bus, 339
in taxi, 339, 340
increased risk from alcohol consumption, 144
Passenger car. See Terminology, car
Passenger-carrying aircraft, 4
Passing, 179, 181, 374
Pedestrians
alcohol in fatally injured, 248-50
baby male-to-female fatality ratio, 228, 229 (figure)
child fatalities, 374
daytime running lamps, 187
driver assumed at fault, 423
effect of car mass on fatality risk, 73
fatalities, 45, 414
affected by belt wearing, 300, 301
by gender and age (population rate), 159, (yearly rate), 157, 159
percent of all fatalities, 47
trends in, 45
infant male-to-female fatality ratio, 228, 229 (figure)
killed per year according to driver gender and age, 156
pedestrian fatality exposure approach, 86
safer to look before crossing, 15-16
severe crash involvements, 160
Performance. See Driver performance
Pennsylvania, 108, 200
Per se laws, 252-54, 253
administrative license revocation, 253
implied consent, 253
legal limit, 49, 243, 254, 256
Scandinavian approach, 253
what is appropriate BAC limit, 256
Perceptual-motor skill, 207, 233
Personality factors, 220-26
Personality factors, continued
above-average crash still small, 222
emotional stress, 223
personality disorders, 221
research difficulties, 221
we drive as we live, 220
Photo radar, 417
Physical laws, 36, 89
Physical principles, 2
Pig killed by airbag, 390
Platoons, 368-69
Pleasure, 378
Poisson distribution, 12-13, 54, 58, 60, 99, 222
comparison with data, 14
computing errors, 14
formula, 12
Poisson process. See Poisson distribution
Poisson, Siméon Denis, 12
Poland, 43
Potentially lethal crashes, 290
Potentiating effects of alcohol. See Alcohol, effect on survivability
President Carter, 392
President Clinton, 1
President Eisenhower, 359
President Jefferson, 237
Pretensioners, 303
Primary enforcement, 297
Privacy, 419
Product placement, 262
Programme for European Traffic with Highest Efficiency and Unprecedented Safety (PROMETHEUS), 111
Prohibition, 258, 264
effect on consumption, 259
Prolonged freeway driving, 177
Proprioception, 174, 175
Psychiatric profiles of fatally injured drivers, 221
Public interest, 5, 403
QALY (quality-adjusted life year), 23
Quarterly Journal of Inebriety, 246
Quebec, 200
Qur'an, 237
Racing car crash protection, 304
Racing drivers, 207, 208 (figure), 360
Radar detector industry, 401
Radar speed detectors, 407
Radar, photo, 417
Ralph Nader, 390, 392, 395, 396
photograph, 391
Unsafe at Any Speed, 390
Rates, (see also Crash rate; Crime rate; Fatality rate; Injury rate by population)
all measures are rates, 11
driver rates are usually best measure, 47, 66
fatality and motorization rate, by country, 43 (table)
Reaction time, 181-84
age, 182
braking, 182
decision, 181, 182
expectancy, 181, 182
for roadway design, 182
perception, 181, 182
technology to reduce, 187
test track experiments, 178
to roadway hazard, 182
Realistic model of behavior change, 348-51
Rear impact crashes, 184-87, 366
center high mounted stop lamp, 185, 186
contribution to fatalities, 184
following driver, 366
influence of ABS, 108
number per year, 31
technology, 370
Rear seat. See Seating position
children, 324
safety advantage, 56
Rebel Without a Cause, 224
Red-light running, 420
Red-light cameras, 418
Reducing your risk, 371
at intersections, 373
at traffic light, 372
Regression to the mean, 105
Relative speed, 178
judgment of, 178-79
bias in, 178
Reliability of injury reports, 28-33
Rescue crews and airbag, 323
Researchers,untrained, 112
Rhode Island, 200, 299
Risk
how to reduce your own, 371-73
studies to identify factors, 336
Risk compensation, 348
Risk homeostasis, 351-52
Risk ratio interpretation, 76-77, 85, 166
Risk taking by babies and infants, 227
Road rage, 343
Roads, 102-5
Interstate, rural, 103, 213
fatality rate, 104
speeds on, 104
Interstate, urban, 103
fatality rate, 104
speeds on, 104
length of, in US, 102
local, 102
reaction time for design, 182
rural, 104
surface of, 98
urban, 104
Rolling resistance, 88
Rollover, 49
alcohol, 49
belt effectiveness, 281, 282
belt use, 50
driver age, 49, 50
fraction of deaths due to, 49, 51
Roundabouts, 106
modern roundabouts, 106
design schematic, 107
Rounding error, 25
Rule of thumb, 71
Russia, 43
Safe driving, eight rules, 379
Safety (see also Safety in US)
reducing your risk, 371-73
two most important factors, 413
Safety advocates, 402
Safety belts. See Belts
Safety in US, 381-90
best in world, 381
comparing 1979 and 2002, 381-90
lack of institutions, 400-401
technical knowledge irrelevant, 390
which countries are aberrant, 389
Samuel Johnson, 9
Santayana, George, 401
Saudi Arabia, 2
Saved by the airbag, 312, 327
Scandinavian approach, 253
Scientific method, 16, 116, 240, 245, 247
Scotland (UK), 218, 219
Seaman, superior, 207
Seating position, 51
fatality risks in different, 53, 54, 55
occupants killed in different, 51-52
rear seat for children, 324
safety advantage of rear seat, 56
Second generation airbag, 311, 321-22, 326, 397
Secondary enforcement, 295, 297
Selective recruitment, 289-92, 293
Self-assessment by drivers, 361-64
Self-paced task, 195, 206
Senator John McCain, 401
Senses, 175
September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, 1
Severe crashes inferred, 154
distance rate, 155
license rate, 155
Severity-specific effectiveness, 273
Sex. See Gender; Terminology, gender
Shakespeare
Hamlet, 5, 192, 347
King Lear, 199, 340
Macbeth, 244
Ships (see also Titanic)
Carpathia, 3
Wilhelm Gustloff, 5
SI system, 9
Side door beams, 114
Side impact, 164, 165
Simulators. See Driving simulators
Single-vehicle crashes, 48
belt effectiveness, 282
effect of mass, 85
effect of SUV on car-driver risk, 94
interpreting risk ratios, 85
Sinking of the Titanic. See Titanic
Size. See Vehicle mass and size
Skid marks, 209
Skill. See Driver performance
Slovak Republic, 43
Slovenia, 43
Smith, Captain Edward J., 3-4
Smoking, 223, 225, 226
changing social norms, 342
second-hand smoke, 414
television advertising, 343
Snow, 98
effect on distance fatality rate, 99
effect on fatal crashes per day, 99
snow states, 99
snow-free states, 99
Sobriety checkpoints, 255
Social norms
driver behavior, 338, 341
smoking, 342
Socioeconomic status, 218
Son risk, 169, 170
South Africa, 43
South Carolina, 99, 100, 200
South Dakota, 200
Soviet Union, 404
Spacing between vehicles
judgment of, 179
influence of visible roadway, 180
Spain, 43
Speed (see also Relative speed; Speed-risk relationships), 407
cause of crash, 36
compared to drunk driving, 342
compared to ?v, 214
effect of alcohol, 245
influence on risk, 209-16
rural, 210
urban, 209
judgment of, 176
blindfolded, 176
cues for, 176
factors influencing, 176
geometric pattern influence, 176
hearing restricted, 176
obscured speedometer, 176
peripheral vision restricted, 176
prolonged freeway driving, 177
percent crashes involving, 366
reducing your risk, 374
spillover effects, 177
vehicle limit, 401
Speed adaptation, 177-78
Speed camera, 219
Speed limit
100 km/h, 212, 215
130 km/h, 215
55 mph, 182
55 mph rescission, 177
60 km/h, 209
80 km/h, 210
90 km/h, 212
claims of no effect on safety, 211
effect of changing, 211, 212-14
enforcement of, 211
German Autobahns, 215
Sweden, 211
Speed variance, 212, 215
Speed-risk relationships, 211
comment on, 216
risk of crash, 211
risk of fatality, 211, 212
risk of injury, 211
Spillover effects, 177
Sport utility vehicle. See SUV
Sports Car Club of America, 207
Sporty vehicles, 63
Standard error, 14
Statistical significance, 359
Striking vehicle, 68
Stringed musical instrument, 175, 190
Suicide, 224-25
copycat, 6, 224
excluded from FARS, 21
male/female ratio, 45, 130, 224, 233
not accidents, 6
percent of traffic fatalities, 21, 225
Suicide seat, 132
Superior seaman, 207
Supersonic flight, 2
SUV, 76, 89, 90, 91, 94, 375, 401
effect on risk to car drivers, 93
tailgating by, 179
Sweden, 2, 41, 43, 187, 211, 215, 253, 341, 361, 362, 381, 385, 400, 404
Swim, 347
Switzerland, 295, 341, 381, 385
System-wide effects, 373
Tailgating, 220, 366, 367
ABS, 110
Tailgating, continued
by SUVs, 179
causes of, 367, 368
platoons, 368-69
what lead driver can do, 370, 372
Tanzania, 43
Target vehicle, 68
Taxi drivers, 110, 220, 340
Taxi passengers, 339, 340
increased risk from alcohol, 144
Technical knowledge, irrelevance of, 390
Technology, 36
rear-impact crashes, 370
Technology/human interface, 4, 348
Teenage fatalities (see also Young drivers), 1
Telephone company vehicles, 185
Tennessee, 200
Term accident
British Medical Journal prohibits term, 6
NHTSA renames FARS, 6
purposeful acts, 6
reason for its appeal, 6
reasons not to use, 6
Terminology (see also Term accident), 6
airbag, 7
car, 7
casualties, 8
cause, 7
crash, 6
data, 7
driver, 7
GB, 7
gender, 7
occupant, 7
passenger car, 7
traffic, 6
traffic safety, 6
UK, 7
Testicles, average per capita, 60
Testosterone, 230-33
crash rates, 230
crime rates, 230, 231
measured in saliva, 231
Texas, 108, 200, 207, 208, 221
The Netherlands. See Netherlands
Third Reich, 404
Three levels of knowledge, 15
Three Mile Island, 340
Tires, 36
Titanic, 2-5, 7, 19
Captain Edward J. Smith, 3-4
movie, 4
number of fatalities, 5
number of survivors, 5
photograph of wreck of, 3
Trackwidth, 78
Traffic. See Terminology, traffic
Traffic engineering. See Engineering, traffic
Traffic fatalities. See Fatalities
Traffic law. See Law enforcement
Traffic safety. See Terminology
Traffic tickets, 217-18
African American, 217, 218
non-Hispanic black, 218
Travel per vehicle per year, 40, 90, 91
Tri-level study, 336
Truck occupant fatalities, 45
Turkey, 43
Two-car crashes (see also Two-vehicle crashes; Vehicle mass and size)
antilock brakes, 108
definitions, 68
fraction of fatalities due to, 68
importance of, 68
interpreting risk ratios, 76-77, 76-77
laws of
first, 69, 72
second, 79
used to investigate survivability versus gender and age, 140
Two-door vehicles
belt effectiveness, 282
distance rates, 66
vehicle rates, 63-66
Two-vehicle crashes (see also Two-car crashes)
by gender and age, 164, 165
definitions, 67
SUV, 76, 94
effect on car-driver risk, 94
Unavoidable crashes, 364, 365
Unfamiliarity with vehicle, 196
United Kingdom. See GB (UK)
Units, 9
billion, 9
SI system, 9
Universal exaggeration factor, 278
Unlicensed driver, 149-50
by gender and age, 151
male-to-female ratio, 150
Unsafe at Any Speed, 390
Untrained researchers, 112
US. See Countries, US
US Congress ending 55 mph limit, 177
US Department of Transportation, 35, 62, 96, 97, 102, 103, 118, 173, 202, 203, 204, 205, 266, 267, 306, 307, 330, 358, 410
US Interstates. See Roads, Interstates, rural; Roads, Interstates, urban
US states
Alabama, 200
Alaska, 99, 100, 200
Arizona, 200
Arkansas, 200
California, 13, 200
Colorado, 200
Connecticut, 200, 257
Delaware, 200
District of Columbia, 200
Florida, 99, 100, 200, 207, 208
Georgia, 99, 100, 200
Hawaii, 99, 100, 200
Idaho, 200, 253
Illinois, 200, 246
Indiana, 108, 200, 336
Iowa, 200
Kansas, 200
Kentucky, 200
Louisiana, 200, 299
Maine, 99, 100, 200
Maryland, 200
Massachusetts, 200
Michigan, 36, 199, 200, 246, 247, 367
Minnesota, 99, 100, 200
Mississippi, 200
Missouri, 108, 200
Montana, 99, 100, 200
Nebraska, 200
Nevada, 200
New Hampshire, 200
New Jersey, 2, 200
New Mexico, 200
New York, 1, 80, 200, 207, 208
North Carolina, 80, 141, 200, 217, 225
North Dakota, 99, 100, 200
Ohio, 200
Oklahoma, 200
Oregon, 110, 200, 361
Pennsylvania, 108, 200
Rhode Island, 200, 299
South Carolina, 99, 100, 200
South Dakota, 200
Tennessee, 200
Texas, 108, 200, 207, 208, 221
Utah, 200, 253
Vermont, 99, 100, 200
Virginia, 200
Washington, 200
West Virginia, 200
Wisconsin, 200
Wyoming, 99, 100, 200
US Supreme Court, 255
Useful field of view, 175
Utah, 200, 253
Vehicle aggressivity, 76
Vehicle choice, 63, 375
Vehicle factors, 63, 107
Vehicle following, 178
tailgating, 220
Vehicle Identification Number (VIN), 67
Vehicle mass and size, Chapter 4
belt effectiveness, 282
causal roles of mass and size, 77-85
changing mix of vehicles, 94
curb mass, 67, 78
distinction between weight and mass, 66
influence of occupants, 67
lighter and safer car, 84
net effect on safety, 91
relationship of, 77-79
single-vehicle crashes, 85
pedestrian fatality exposure approach, 86
SUV, 76, 94
Vehicle mass and size, continued two-car crashes, 68-85
adding passenger, 79, 81
causal roles of mass and size, 77-85
driver effects, 73
make car lighter and safer, 84
model separating mass and size, 81-85
replace car by heavier one, 83
side impact, 74
two-vehicle crashes, 68-85
delta-v, 70
driver fatality ratio, R, 68
mass ratio, ?, 68
Newtonian mechanics, 70, 71
various vehicles, 75
Vehicle ownership rate. See Motorization
Vehicle size. See Vehicle mass and size
Vermont, 99, 100, 200
Victoria, Australia, 255, 295
Violinist, 22
Virginia, 200
Visual feedback, 174
Visual performance, 175
VMT. See Travel per vehicle per year
War, 6, 32, 41, 42, 264, 401
War on drugs, 264
Wardrop's principle, 112
Washington, DC, 1, 200
Weather
injuries per fatality, 101
number of vehicles per fatal crash, 101
snow, 98
effect on distance fatality rate, 99
effect on fatal crashes per day, 99
West Virginia, 200
Wheelbase, 77
When used effectiveness, 273, 279
Whiplash, 29-31
whiplash syndrome, 29
White Star Line, 4
Widmark, Erik, 241, 252
Widmark's Beta, 241
Wilhelm Gustloff, 5
William Haddon, Jr, 322
10 strategies to reduce risks, 322
Wisconsin, 200
World population, 1
Wyoming, 99, 100, 200
Young drivers, 171
compared to older, 169, 170
lack of skill, 197
parental influence, 225
risk taking, 224
teenage fatalities per day, 1
threat to pedestrians, 156
Your risk. See Reducing your risk
Zeal, 116, 395, 407
Zimbabwe, 43