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INDEX

A man drives as he lives, 338
AAAM, 22
Abbreviated Injury Scale. See AIS
ABS. See Antilock brakes
Accident, 412. See Term accident
Accident or Suicide? Destruction by Automobile, 224
Accident proneness, 13
Adelaide, Australia, 16, 209, 210, 245, 334, 335 (traffic photograph)
Administrative license revocation, 253
Adolescent. See Young drivers
Adolescent problem behavior syndrome, 224
Advertising, 343
      airbags, 400
      alcohol, 241, 261-64, 265
            amount spent on, 261
            to underage drinkers, 263
      beer, 238, 258, 262, 263
            drink most advertised, 262
      influence on behavior, 344, 401, 422
      tobacco, 343
Age (see also Older drivers; Young drivers)
      effect on survivability, 132-37, 139-41
            female, 134-37, 140
            male, 133-37, 139
Airbag, (see also Airbag mandate), 381, Chapters 12 and 15
      benefit-cost comparison, 314-15, 320-21
      benefits, 314-15, 316-18
            Canada, 405
            flaw in estimating, 326
      better than belts (Joan Claybrook TV comments), 396
      children, 312, 391, 392
      costs, 85, 314-15, 318-20, 322, 323, 400
            annual, 320
            comfort and convenience, 324
            installing, 319, 321
            replacement, 318, 319
      deployment threshold, 273, 276, 304
      deployments, 310, 311
      design dilemma, 323
      direction of impact, 312
      distraction, 399
      effectiveness if belt use increases, 327
      effectiveness, fatalities, 285-87, 285, 286, 288, 315, 317, 381, 394, 395, 399
            first estimate of, 392
            use to justify mandate, 392-96
      effectiveness, injuries, 315, 317, 394, 399
            use to justify mandate, 392-96
      ethics of, 324-26
      fatalities caused by, 302, 312
            decline in, 400
            to children, 312, 397
            to females, 312, 325, 397
      fatalities with deployment, 311
      fatalities without deployment, 313
      injuries caused, 302, 312, 322
            asthma, 322
            gender difference in, 129, 324
            to eyes, 322
            to females, 312
            to hearing, 322
            to upper extremities, 324
      number in fleet, 310
      out of position, 312, 390
      proper government role, 328
      remove belts, 393
      second generation, 311, 321-22, 326, 397
      speed-reduction equivalent, 216
Airbag mandate, 309, 328, 392-400, 402, 405, 406
      5 reasons given for, 399
Airbag mandate, continued
      auto industry response to, 400
      prevented belt laws, 396
Airline safety, 353-55, 360, 414
      age of pilot, 4
      pilot behavior, 355
      zero 2002 deaths, 354, 414
Airship crashes, 5-6
AIS, 24, 316, 321, 322, 324, 392, 394
      description of, 22
      probability of death, 23
Akron, 5
Alabama, 200
Alaska, 99, 100, 200
Alcohol (see also Advertising, Alcohol content; Blood Alcohol Concentration; Drunk driving; Per se laws), Chapter 10 
      absorption and elimination, 241-43
            drink concentration, 241
            effect of food, 241
            Widmark's Beta, 241
      availability of, 258-60
            minimum drinking age laws, 259
            prohibition, 258, 264
            effect on consumption, 259
            strike at Norway monopoly, 259
            zero-tolerance, 259
      beneficial effects of, 237
      causal role, 250-51
      cost, 260-61
            Federal Excise Tax, 260, 264
            price elasticity, 260
      crash role by severity, 252
      effect on behavior, 243, 244, 245-46, 248
      effect on crash risk, 246-48
            compared to speeding, 342
      effect on performance, 243, 244-45
            in driving simulators, 189
            literature on, 238, 244
      effect on survivability, 141-44, 243
            'roll with punches', 141
            difficulties in FARS data, 142
            elevator analogy, 142
            fatality risk versus BAC, 143
            two-car crashes used to measure, 143
      history, 237, 243, 246
      ignition interlock systems, 257
      in fatally injured drivers, 248-50, 251
      in fatally injured passengers, 249
      in fatally injured pedestrians, 248-50
      involved in crashes in China, 338
      literature on, 237
      measurement of, 238-40
            content in human body, 239-40
      National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984, 259
      random breath testing, 254-55
            New South Wales, Australia, 254
      sales of, 261, 262
            to problem drinkers, 263
      sobriety checkpoints, 255
      US fatalities involving, 250-51
            prevented by countermeasures, 251
Alcohol content
      by type of drink, 238, 239
            alcohol free beer, 238
      Gay-Lussac system, 239
      measurement of, 238-40
      proof, UK, 239
      proof, US, 238, 239
Alcohol Test Result. See Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC)
Altruism, 378
American Association for Retired Persons (AARP), 147
American Graffiti, 224
American Medical Association (AMA), 147, 262
Antilock brakes (ABS), 98, 107-11, 206
      are they desirable, 111
      performance of, 107
      rear-impact crashes, 108
      rollover risk, 109, 110
      tailgating, 110
Antiquity, 2, 237, 347
Argentina, 43
Arizona, 200
Arkansas, 200
Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine (AAAM), 22
Asthma from airbag deployment, 322
At fault crashes, 364, 365-66
Australia, 16, 43, 197, 209, 245, 254, 295, 334, 345, 381, 382, 385, 400, 405, 417
Austria, 381
Autobahn, 215
Autocar, 36
Automatic monitoring. See Monitoring, automatic
Automobile (see also Terminology, car)
      first (Karl Benz), 36
Autopsy, 20, 142, 247, 392
Average
      behavior produces average crash risk, 360
      caution in interpreting, 60
      driver, 360
      most are better than average, 363
      self assessment compared to, 361-64

Babies
      distraction in rear seat, 196
      risk taking by, 227
      fatalities, 227, 228
BAC. See Blood Alcohol Concentration
Bacchus, 237
Battle deaths, 1
Beginning driver, 191
      crash rates, 193-94
      eye fixations, 192
      rollover, 194
Behavior. See Driver behavior
Behavior change, 348
      avoid airbag, 326, 397
      occupant protection, 300
      table showing related crash risk change, 336
      UK belt law, 300
Behavior response. See Behavior change
Belfast, 4
Beliefs, 402
Belt wearing laws, 295-97, 404-6
      benefits of, 297-98
      first, 295
      jury must not know, 403
      objections to, 302
      primary enforcement, 297
      secondary enforcement, 295, 297
      UK, 296, 300
Belts, lap/shoulder (see also Belt wearing laws), 274-83
      effectiveness of, 276-83
            by car mass, 282
            by driver age, 282
            dependence on severity, 275
            difficulties in estimating, 277
            direction of impact, 280, 281
            ejection, 280, 281
            fatality reducing mechanisms, 280, 281
            field, 273, 287-92
            for four-door cars, 282
            for two-door cars, 282
            load limiters, 303
            more precise estimates of, 303
            pretensioners, 303
            problems in determining, 53
            rollover, 281, 282
            selective recruitment, 289-92
            severity-specific, 273, 274, 276
            single-vehicle crashes, 282
            when used, 273, 279
      miscoding of belt use, 278
      use of
            by fatalities compared to observed drivers, 52
            by surviving occupants, 20
            fatality reductions from increasing, 292-98
            inferred from fatalities, 290
            jury must not know, 403
Belts, lap-only in rear, effectiveness, 283-84
Benefit-cost comparison
      of airbag, 314-15, 320-21
      of new safety approach, 421-22
Benz, Karl
      first automobile, 36
      limited vehicle market, 190
Bible, 237, 243
Bicyclist fatalities, 45, 414
Bikini swimsuit, 60
Billion, definition of, 9
Biomechanics, 270
Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC), 239-40
      formula to compute, 242
      interpret with caution in FARS, 248
      legal limit, 406
      table of values after drinking, 243
      what is appropriate limit, 256
Blood Alcohol Level (BAL), same as Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC)
Borkenstein, Robert, 240, 246
Braking reaction time, 182
Brazil, 43
Breasts, average number per capita, 60
Breathalyzer, 240, 246
British Road Safety Act of 1967, 253
Bullet vehicle, 68
Bus passengers, 339

CAFE. See Corporate Average Fuel Economy
Cairo, Egypt, 334, 335 (traffic photograph)
California, 13, 200
Cameras, red-light, 418
Canada, 31-33, 43, 101, 197, 253, 341, 381, 382, 385, 390, 404, 405, 417
      Nova Scotia, 200
      Ontario, 101, 102, 200, 346, 404
      Quebec, 200
Candy Lightner, 257
Captain Edward J. Smith, 3-4
Car mass. See Vehicle mass and size
Car size. See Vehicle mass and size
Carding drivers, 259
Carter, Jimmy, 392
Case-control, 209-10, 209-10, 211
      alcohol and crash risk, 246
      possible flaw in, 247
      rural speeds, 210-11
      urban speeds, 209-10
Case-crossover, cell phone risk, 196
Cell phone, 191
      crash risk, 196
      distraction, 196
Center high mounted stop lamp, 185
      experimental evaluation, 185
      in-use evaluation, 186
      novelty effect, 186
Center seat, 54
Children
      fatalities
            airbag caused, 397
            as drivers, 227, 228
            as pedestrians, 374
      in rear seats, 196, 324
China, 37, 41, 43
Claybrook, Joan, 392, 395, 396, 401
Clinton, Bill, 1
Clock points, 55
Closed-loop compensatory feedback control process, 174
Cochrane Library, 197
Coffee, 250
Cohort, 161
Collapsible steering column, 113, 272
Collision Deformation Code, 276, 277, 289
Colorado, 200
Columbine High School shootings, 1
Company vehicles, 377
Congress, US, 253
Connecticut, 200, 257
Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE), 88-91
      changing mix of vehicles, 94
      consumer choice, 89
      effect on fuel use, 90
            300-pound patient, 91
            tax, 91
      effect on safety, 89, 91
            difficult to estimate, 92
            National Academies report, 89
      SUV, 89, 90, 91, 93
Cost of US traffic crashes, 1, 24-25
Cost-benefit comparison. See Benefit-cost comparison
Countries
      Argentina, 43
      Australia, 16, 43, 197, 209, 245, 254, 345, 381, 382, 385, 400, 417
      Australia,, 334
      Austria, 381
      Brazil, 43
      Canada, 31-33, 43, 101, 197, 253, 341, 381, 382, 385, 390, 417
      China, 41, 43
      Czech Republic, 43
      Denmark, 253, 381, 385
Countries, continued
      Egypt, 16, 43, 334
      England (UK), 237
      Ethiopia, 43
      Finland, 21, 161, 187, 225, 253, 381, 385, 400
      France, 43, 301, 390
      GB (UK), 7, 32, 33, 36, 37, 41, 42, 43, 45, 106, 197, 212, 215, 238, 253, 295, 296, 297, 336, 341, 343, 345, 373, 377, 381, 382, 383, 384, 385, 387, 388, 400, 405, 417
      Germany, 36, 43, 80, 176, 215, 381
      Ghana, 43
      Hungary, 43
      Iceland, 381
      India, 345
      Ireland, 28, 29, 43, 45, 345
      Israel, 2, 43, 417
      Japan, 42, 43, 176, 345, 381
      Kenya, 43, 45
      Korea, 43
      Lithuania, 30, 31
      Luxembourg, 381
      Malawi, 43
      Malaysia, 345
      Mozambique, 42, 43
      Netherlands, 42, 43, 226, 381, 385, 400
      New Zealand, 43, 199, 381, 400, 417
      Nigeria, 43
      Northern Ireland (UK), 28, 29
      Norway, 42, 43, 110, 187, 253, 381, 385
      Poland, 43
      Russia, 43
      Saudi Arabia, 2
      Scotland (UK), 218, 219
      Slovak Republic, 43
      Slovenia, 43
      South Africa, 43
      Spain, 43
      Sweden, 2, 41, 42, 43, 187, 211, 215, 253, 341, 361, 362, 381, 385, 400, 404
      Switzerland, 341, 381, 385
      Tanzania, 43
      Turkey, 43
      US, 2, 36, 37, 41, 42, 43, 45, 106, 334, 341, 343, 362, 381, 382, 385, 390, 400, 402, 404, 417
      Zimbabwe, 43
Crash (see also Fatal crash; Terminology, crash)
      cost of in US, 1, 24-35
      factors in, 334, 339, 355
      laboratory provided by, 129, 144
      Pan Am 103, 6
Crash avoidance, 4, 113, 199
Crash prevention, terminology, 8
Crash protection (see also Crash worthiness)
      theoretical limits of, 304
Crash risk
      altruism, 378
      incentives, 376
      inferred from FARS data, 290
      insurance impact on, 376-77
      pleasure, 378
      unbelted vs belted drivers, 291
            table, 292
Crash severity, 25-27
      Collision Deformation Code, 276, 277, 289
      delta?v (or ?v), 26, 289
      extent of deformation, 25
Crashworthiness, 8, 17, 85, 86, 95, 354, 356, 401, 415
      of Titanic, 4, 5
Crime rates, 226-27
      age dependence, 226, 227
      gender dependence, 226, 227
      relationship to crash rates, 226, 227, 230
      relationship to testosterone, 230
Crocodile, 9, 10
Cross sectional analysis, 160
Czech Republic, 43

DALY (disability-adjusted life year), 23
Danger compensation, 348
Dangerous Liaisons, 347
Daytime running lamps, 187
Definitions. See Terminology
Degree of motorization, 41-44
 
Delaware, 200
Delta?v (or ?v), 26, 27, 71, 72, 73, 184, 214, 272, 273, 289
      aircraft landing, 26
      Newtonian mechanics, 70
      Demographic factors, 217-19
      African American, 217, 218
      non-Hispanic black, 218
Denmark, 253, 381, 385
Dionysus, 237
Direction of impact, 55
      airbag, 312
      belt effectiveness, 280, 281
Disability-adjusted life year (DALY), 23
Distraction, 195-96, 399
      experimental data, 195
      from airbag, 322
      from cell phone, 196
      from infant in rear, 196
District of Columbia, 200
Double pair comparison method, 120
      numerical example, 122, 123 (table)
      possible biases, 130
      unsuitable for alcohol and survivability, 142
Drive on left or right, 344-45
Driver. See Beginning driver; Unlicensed driver
Driver behavior, 174, 206-34, 359-60
      autonomous, 341
      definition of, 206
      dominant role in safety, 333, 338, 341
      fear, 338, 339
      habit, 341
      impact of law on, 338, 344, 346
      individual, 413
      interactive effects, 347
      interactive effects, naïve and realistic models, 348-51
      mass media effect on, 338, 343, 402
      other road users, 413
      overconfidence, 361-64
      reducing your risk, 371-72
            at traffic light, 372
      road rage, 343
      social norms, 338, 341
Driver education, 197-98, 343
      and crash risk, 197
      evaluation from world literature, 197
      longer term experience, 198
Driver license
      age for in US states, 200 (table)
      by gender and age, 150
      graduated driver license, 199-201
      unlicensed drivers male-to-female ratio, 150
Driver performance, 36, 174-202
      acquisition of driving skill, 190-94
            beginning driver, 191
            three phases, 191
      definition of, 206
      everyone can drive, 190
      impact on safety, 194-95
      longer term experience, 198
Driver responsibility, 364
Driving is a public activity, 419
Driving simulators, 187-90, 187
      driving while blindfolded, 176
      measuring alcohol effects, 189
      measuring older driver effects, 190
      National Advanced Driving Simulator, 190, 245
      number in 1970, 188
      what they can do, 188
            comments from 1991, 190
            list published in 1972, 189
      what they measure, 188
Driving skill. See Driver performance
Drugs, 247
Drunk driving (see also Alcohol), 237
      BAC limit, 252-54
      criminal sanctions for, 252-57, 252
Drunkometer, 240
DUI, 237
DWI, 237

Economic depression, 42
Economic principles, 33, 377
Effectiveness (see also Airbags; Belts; Motorcycle, helmets), 273-77
      concepts, 274-76
      definitions, 273-77
      table of estimates, 288
Egypt, 16, 43, 237, 334
Eisenhower, Dwight, 359
Ejection, 51
Ejection, continued
      belt effectiveness, 280, 281
      belt use, 51
      driver age, 51
      effect on fatality risk, 51
      fraction of deaths due to, 49, 50
Elevator analogy, 142
Emotional stress, 223
Energy Policy and Conservation Act of 1975, 88
Energy required to accelerate, 88
Engineering, traffic, 105-7
      reaction time for design, 182
      roundabouts, 106
            modern roundabouts, 106
            design requirements, 107
England (UK), 237
Equity and airbags, 324
Ethanol, 238
Ethics and airbags, 324-26
Ethiopia, 43
Ethyl alcohol, 238
Event data recorders (EDR), 304
Experience, 198
Expert witness, 403
Exposure, 10-11, 17, 53, 86, 96, 143, 160, 196, 247, 310, 409
      crocodile, 10
Eye injuries from airbags, 322
Ezra Hauer comment, 112

Factors in crashes
      relative importance of, 355
      schematic, 334, 339
Family influence, 225
Family members risks, 169, 170
FARS  (More than 200 mentions in text)
      body type, 50, 52, 68
      description of data set, 20
      missing values in, 45
      suicide excluded, 21
Fatal crash
      crash free for 3.5 hours, 58
      daily variation, 58
      fatalities per crash, 21
      fewest in February, 98
      first harmful event in, 49
      first recorded, 36
      involved vehicles per crash, 21
      most harmful event in, 49
      number of vehicles, 48-49
            weather, 101
      rate of occurrence, 58
            five-minute pattern, 59
            Poisson fit, 59
      rollover (or overturn), 49
      survivors per crash, 21
Fatalities (see also Fatality rate; Fatality reductions from belt use)
      airbag, 312, 313
      bicyclist, 414
      by person killed, 45 (table)
      child driver, 227, 228 (table)
      definition
            FARS, 19
            National Safety Council, 20
      fetus, 21
      first pedestrian, 36
      gender dependence, 46
      major source of sudden violent death, 28
      monthly variation in, 57
      passenger, 414
      pedestrian, 414
            child, 374
      probability due to traffic, 162
            table of specific values, 163
      running red light, 420
      traffic relative to all deaths, 161-63
      US daily, 1
      US monthly, 1
      who is killed, 44-48
      worldwide, 1, 44, 232
Fatalities (all causes - not just traffic), 44, 161
Fatality Analysis Reporting System. See FARS
Fatality rate
      countries, 38, 333, 382
      distance rate, 37
            by gender and age, 151, 153
            GB, 385, 386, 387, 388
            US, 37, 38, 39, 40, 385, 386, 387, 388
      involvement rates not measured, 129
      license rate by gender and age, 152
      long term trends in, 37-44
Fatality rate, continued
      population rate, 11, 43
            by gender and age, 149
      related to wealth, 332
      time variation in, 38, 40, 42, 333
      vehicle rate, 40-44, 43
            Australia, Egypt, US, 334
            for Australia, 334, 383, 384, 387, 388
            for Canada, 383, 384, 387, 388
            for China, 41
            for Egypt, 334
            for GB, 383, 384, 387, 388
            for Sweden, 41
            for US, 40, 41, 334, 383, 384, 387, 388
zzzzrate of change, 41
            four-door vehicles, 63-66
            two-door vehicles, 63-66
            vehicle factors not measured, 63
      yearly rate, 11, 43
            by gender and age, 148
            for Australia, 383, 387, 388, 400
            for Canada, 383, 387, 388, 400
            for China, 37, 38
            for GB, 383, 387, 388, 400
            for US, 37, 38, 383, 387, 388, 400
Fatality reductions from increasing belt use, 292-94, 293, 297
            equation, 293
            law of increasing returns, 297, 298
Federal Excise Tax on alcohol, 260, 264
Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (FMVSS), 112, 185, 383
      combined effectiveness of all standards, 115
      effectiveness estimates, 113 (table)
Federal Register, 392
      NHTSA airbag effectiveness used to justify mandate, 393
      NHTSA estimates of cost savings from removing belts, 393
Feedback (see also Behavior change), 174, 199
      aural, 175
      closed-loop compensatory feedback control process, 174
      proprioceptive, 174, 175
      visual, 174
            provides '90% of information used to drive', 174
            useful field of view, 175
Fetuses killed, 21
Field effectiveness, 273, 287-92
Field of view, 175
Finland, 21, 161, 187, 207, 225, 253, 381, 385, 400
Firearms, 45
First Amendment rights, 422
First fatal crash, 36, 37
Florida, 99, 100, 200, 207, 208
FMVSS. See Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards
Ford Model T, 36
Ford, Henry, 36
Four-door vehicles
      belt effectiveness, 282
      distance rates, 66
      vehicle rates, 63-66
France, 43, 301, 390
Frank Haight, 351
Free speeds, 210
Friedman, Milton, 377

Gay-Lussac system, 239
GB (UK), 32, 33, 36, 37, 41, 43, 106, 197, 212, 215, 238, 253, 295, 296, 297, 336, 341, 343, 345, 373, 377, 381, 382, 385, 405, 417
      degree of motorization, 41
      fatality rate
            per vehicle, 383, 384, 387, 388
            per year, 383, 387, 388, 400
      terminology, 7
Gender differences
      airbag, 131, 324
      effect on survivability, 120-32, 137-38
            alternate explanations, 131
            fundamental origin, 128
            suicide seat, 132
Gender ratio. See male-to-female ratio
General Motors (GM), 108, 113, 284, 377, 392, 394, 395, 396
      10,000 airbag-equipped vehicle fleet, 395
George Santayana, 401
Georgia, 99, 100, 200
German Autobahns, 215
Germany, 36, 43, 80, 176, 215, 381
Ghana, 43
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 407
Graduated driver license, 199-201
      age of licensure in US states, 200 (table)
      young driver paradox, 199
Grand Rapids dip, 248
Grand Rapids study, 246
Grand Rapids, Michigan, 246, 247
Granddad risk, 169, 170
Great Britain. See GB
Gross Domestic Product, 1, 8, 25, 319, 332

Haddon Matrix, 355
Haddon, William Jr., 322
      10 strategies to reduce risks, 322
Haight, Frank, 351
Hamlet, 5, 192, 347
Harger, Rolla N, 240
Hauer, Ezra, comment, 112
Hawaii, 99, 100, 200
Head restraints, 114
Headway, 367
      ABS, 110
      recommended, 367
Health analogy, 332
Hearing loss from airbag, 322
Helmets, motorcyle
      effectiveness, 284-85
      repeal of wearing laws, 298-300
Helsinki bus and streetcar drivers, 207
Henry Ford, 36
Heroes, Rogues, and Lovers, Testosterone and Behavior, 231
Hieroglyphics, 237
Highway Safety Act of 1966, 285, 298
Hindenburg, 5, 6
Holland. See Netherlands
Homicide, 6, 45
      by vehicle, 6
Houston, Texas, 221
Hungary, 43

Iceland, 381
Idaho, 200, 253
IIHS, 64, 65, 66
Illinois, 200, 246
Impact clock points, 55
Impairment, 245
Implied consent, 253
Incentives influence crash risk, 376
India, 345
Indiana, 108, 200, 336
Indiana University, 336
Infant driver fatalities, 227, 228 (table)
Injuries (see also Fatalities; Injury rate by population), 22-23
      AIS classification, 22
      injuries per fatality, 31-33, 31-33
            Canada, 31-33, 102
      KABCO classification, 22
      MAIS classification, 22
      reliability of reports of, 28-33
      Transport Canada definition, 33
      worldwide, 1
Injury rate by population
            Ireland (Republic of), 28, 29
            Northern Ireland (UK), 28, 29
Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS), 64, 65, 66
Insurance, effect on crash risk, 376-77
Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS), 111
Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS), 111
Interactive effects in evaluation, 347
Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991, 111
International Classification of Diseases, 22
Interpreting risk ratios, 76-77, 85, 166
Interstate. See Roads, Interstate, rural; Roads, Interstate, urban
Inter-vehicular spacing
      judgment of, 179
            influence of visible roadway, 180
Iowa, 200
Ireland, 28, 29, 43, 345
Ireland, Northern. See Northern Ireland 
Israel, 2, 43, 212, 417
Ivory Coast, 295

Japan, 43, 176, 345, 381
Jefferson, Thomas, 237
Jesus, what vehicle to drive, 375
Joan Claybrook, 392, 395, 396, 401
      TV comments - airbags better than belts, 396
John McCain, 401
Johnson, Dr. Samuel, 9
Jury, 2, 36, 402, 403

KABCO classification, 22
Kansas, 200
Karl Benz, See Benz, Karl
Kelvin, 16
Kentucky, 200
Kenya, 43
Killed by the airbag, 312, 327
Kilometers per hour (km/h). See Speed
Kilometers per year, 40, 90, 91
Kinetic energy, 67
King Lear, 199, 340
KMT. See Travel per vehicle per year
Korea, 43
KPH (incorrect for km/h). See Speed

Laboratory from crashes, 129, 144
Law, 344-46
      heart of US problem, 403
      impact of, 344
Law enforcement, 416
      effect on casualties, 346
      revenue from, 417
      traffic tickets, 217-18
Law of increasing returns, 297, 298
Lawyer, 2, 389, 390, 392, 396, 401, 403, 407
Learner driver. See Beginning driver
Learning, spontaneous, 335
Less-motorized countries, 1, 8, 197
License-plate number, 219
Lighter and safer car, 84
Lighting conditions, 102, 103
Lightner, Candy, 257
Litigation impact on US safety, 403
Lithuania, 30, 31
Load limiters, 303
Longer term experience, 198
Longitudinal analysis, 161
Lord Kelvin, 16
Louisiana, 200, 299
Luxembourg, 381

Macbeth, 244
MADD. See Mothers Against Drunk Driving
Maine, 99, 100, 200
MAIS (maximum AIS), 22, 24, 25, 252, 315, 316, 317, 340
      numbers sustaining different levels, 24
Malawi, 43, 295
Malaysia, 345
Male-to-female ratio, 44
      alcohol absorption, 241
      baby and infant driver fatalities, 227
      baby and infant pedestrian fatalities, 228, 229 (figure)
      crime, 226
      implications for interventions, 233
      socialization, 232
      universal and basic, 233
      unlicensed drivers, 150
Maryland, 200
Mass. See Vehicle mass and size
Mass media, 338, 343, 402, 422
Massachusetts, 200
McCain, John, 401
McCarthyism, 344
Mean. See Average
Media paradox, 340
Michigan, 36, 199, 200, 246, 247, 367
Miles per hour (mph). See Speed
Miles per year, 40, 90, 91
Milton Friedman, 377
Minimum drinking age laws, 259
      zero tolerance, 259
Minnesota, 99, 100, 200
Mirror, unbreakable, 71
Miscoding of belt use, 278
Mississippi, 200
Missouri, 108, 200
Mobility, 105, 106, 111, 352-53, 374
      older drivers, 153
Monetary cost of US crashes, 24-25
Monitoring, automatic, 417-19
      advantages, 418
      drunk driving, 419
      photo radar, 417
      policy, 420
Monitoring, automatic, continued
      red-light cameras, 418
Montana, 99, 100, 200
Moral hazard, 376
Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD), 257-58, 342, 343, 407
Motives, non-transport, 223, 224
Motorcycle (see also Helmets, motorcyle)
      appear further away, 179
      fatalities, 45, 125, 126, 128, 131, 285
      high risk, 285
      older drivers, 285
      passenger fatalities, 126
Motorization, 43
Mozambique, 43
mph (miles per hour). See Speed
Multiple-vehicle crashes
      belt effectiveness, 282
      crash involving 56 vehicles, 49
Multivariate analysis, 116, 333
Muscle power, 2, 270

Nader, Ralph, 390, 391 (photograph), 392, 395, 396
      Unsafe at Any Speed, 390
Naive calculation of effectiveness, 288
Naive model of behavior change, 348
NASS, 24, 26, 71, 92, 151, 196, 276, 316
National Academies of Sciences report, 89
National Advanced Driving Simulator, 190, 245
National Automotive Sampling System (NASS), 24, 26, 71, 92, 151, 196, 276, 316
National Automotive Sampling System Crashworthiness Data System (NASS CDS), 24
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. See NHTSA
National Household Travel Survey (NHTS), 151, 152
National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984, 259
National Motor Vehicle Safety Act of 1966, 112
Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey, 218
Natural experiment, 213, 299
Nebraska, 200
Netherlands, 42, 43, 226, 381, 385, 400
Nevada, 200
New Hampshire, 200
New Jersey, 2, 200
New Mexico, 200
New South Wales, Australia, 254
New York, 80, 200, 207, 208
      terrorist attack, 1
New Zealand, 43, 199, 381, 400, 417
Newtonian mechanics, 70, 72
NHTS, 151, 152
NHTSA, (More than 100 mentions).
      description of Agency, 20
Nigeria, 43
Non-elastic collision, 70
Non-transport motives, 223, 224
North Carolina, 80, 141, 200, 217, 225
North Dakota, 99, 100, 200
Northern Ireland (UK), 28, 29
Norway, 43, 110, 187, 253, 259, 381, 385
Not at fault crashes, 364, 365
Nova Scotia, 200
Novelty effect, 186

Objections to belt wearing laws, 302
Obstetrician, male, 359
Occupancy, 48
Occupant. See Terminology, occupant
Occupant protection (see also Airbags; Belts; Helmets, motorcyle)
      behavior change, 300
      can it kill, 301
      devices
            active, 272
            belligerent, 400
            passive, 272, 397, 399, 400
      goal of, 271, 272
      limits of, 304
      vehicle design, 271
Occupant restraint device same as occupant protection device, 272
Ohio, 200
Oil embargo, 88, 383
Oklahoma, 200
Older drivers, Chapter 7
      age is continuous variable, 147
      Captain of Titanic, 4
      compared to younger, 169, 170
      cross sectional compared to longitudinal analyses, 160
      distance traveled, 151, 152, 153
      fragility, 153
      is problem changing, 170-71
      license rate, 152
            by gender and age, 150
      literature on, 147
      mobility reduced, 153
      motorcyclists, 285
      reaction time, 182
      risk comparisons using specific examples, 166-70
            family, 169, 170
      risks to drivers themselves, 147
            examples, 168
            fatalities per year, 148
            population rate, 149
            severe crash rates, 154
      risks to other road users, 147
            examples, 166, 167
            pedestrians killed (distance rate), 157, 158
            pedestrians killed (license rate), 157, 158
            pedestrians killed (population rate), 157
            pedestrians killed (yearly rate), 156
      simulators for research on, 190
      son, dad, granddad, 169, 170
      types of crashes, 163-66
            rollover, 163, 164
            side impact, 164, 165
            two-vehicle, 164, 165
      unfamiliarity with vehicle, 196
      visual acuity, 175
Ontario, 101, 102, 200, 346, 404
Open-loop process, 174
Oregon, 110, 200, 361
Orwellian language, 8
Out of position, 312, 390
Overconfidence, driver, 361-64, 363
      explanation of, 363-64
Overtaking, 179, 181
      reducing your risk, 374
Overturn. See Rollover

Partner vehicle., 68
Passenger (see also Terminology, passenger
      alcohol in fatally injured, 249
      fatalities, 45, 46, 414
      in bus, 339
      in taxi, 339, 340
            increased risk from alcohol consumption, 144
Passenger car. See Terminology, car
Passenger-carrying aircraft, 4
Passing, 179, 181, 374
Pedestrians
      alcohol in fatally injured, 248-50
      baby male-to-female fatality ratio, 228, 229 (figure)
      child fatalities, 374
      daytime running lamps, 187
      driver assumed at fault, 423
      effect of car mass on fatality risk, 73
      fatalities, 45, 414
            affected by belt wearing, 300, 301
            by gender and age (population rate), 159, (yearly rate), 157, 159
            percent of all fatalities, 47
            trends in, 45
      infant male-to-female fatality ratio, 228, 229 (figure)
      killed per year according to driver gender and age, 156
      pedestrian fatality exposure approach, 86
      safer to look before crossing, 15-16
      severe crash involvements, 160
Performance. See Driver performance
Pennsylvania, 108, 200
Per se laws, 252-54, 253
      administrative license revocation, 253
      implied consent, 253
      legal limit, 49, 243, 254, 256
      Scandinavian approach, 253
      what is appropriate BAC limit, 256
Perceptual-motor skill, 207, 233
Personality factors, 220-26
Personality factors, continued
      above-average crash still small, 222
      emotional stress, 223
      personality disorders, 221
      research difficulties, 221
      we drive as we live, 220
Photo radar, 417
Physical laws, 36, 89
Physical principles, 2
Pig killed by airbag, 390
Platoons, 368-69
Pleasure, 378
Poisson distribution, 12-13, 54, 58, 60, 99, 222
      comparison with data, 14
      computing errors, 14
      formula, 12
Poisson process. See Poisson distribution
Poisson, Siméon Denis, 12
Poland, 43
Potentially lethal crashes, 290
Potentiating effects of alcohol. See Alcohol, effect on survivability
President Carter, 392
President Clinton, 1
President Eisenhower, 359
President Jefferson, 237
Pretensioners, 303
Primary enforcement, 297
Privacy, 419
Product placement, 262
Programme for European Traffic with Highest Efficiency and Unprecedented Safety (PROMETHEUS), 111
Prohibition, 258, 264
      effect on consumption, 259
Prolonged freeway driving, 177
Proprioception, 174, 175
Psychiatric profiles of fatally injured drivers, 221
Public interest, 5, 403

QALY (quality-adjusted life year), 23
Quarterly Journal of Inebriety, 246
Quebec, 200
Qur'an, 237
Racing car crash protection, 304
Racing drivers, 207, 208 (figure), 360
Radar detector industry, 401
Radar speed detectors, 407
Radar, photo, 417
Ralph Nader, 390, 392, 395, 396
      photograph, 391
      Unsafe at Any Speed, 390
Rates, (see also Crash rate; Crime rate; Fatality rate; Injury rate by population)
      all measures are rates, 11
      driver rates are usually best measure, 47, 66
      fatality and motorization rate, by country, 43 (table)
Reaction time, 181-84
      age, 182
      braking, 182
      decision, 181, 182
      expectancy, 181, 182
      for roadway design, 182
      perception, 181, 182
      technology to reduce, 187
      test track experiments, 178
      to roadway hazard, 182
Realistic model of behavior change, 348-51
Rear impact crashes, 184-87, 366
      center high mounted stop lamp, 185, 186
      contribution to fatalities, 184
      following driver, 366
      influence of ABS, 108
      number per year, 31
      technology, 370
Rear seat. See Seating position
      children, 324
      safety advantage, 56
Rebel Without a Cause, 224
Red-light running, 420
Red-light cameras, 418
Reducing your risk, 371
      at intersections, 373
      at traffic light, 372
Regression to the mean, 105
Relative speed, 178
      judgment of, 178-79
            bias in, 178
Reliability of injury reports, 28-33
Rescue crews and airbag, 323
Researchers,untrained, 112
Rhode Island, 200, 299
Risk
      how to reduce your own, 371-73
      studies to identify factors, 336
Risk compensation, 348
Risk homeostasis, 351-52
Risk ratio interpretation, 76-77, 85, 166
Risk taking by babies and infants, 227
Road rage, 343
Roads, 102-5
      Interstate, rural, 103, 213
            fatality rate, 104
            speeds on, 104
      Interstate, urban, 103
            fatality rate, 104
            speeds on, 104
      length of, in US, 102
      local, 102
      reaction time for design, 182
      rural, 104
      surface of, 98
      urban, 104
Rolling resistance, 88
Rollover, 49
      alcohol, 49
      belt effectiveness, 281, 282
      belt use, 50
      driver age, 49, 50
      fraction of deaths due to, 49, 51
Roundabouts, 106
      modern roundabouts, 106
      design schematic, 107
Rounding error, 25
Rule of thumb, 71
Russia, 43

Safe driving, eight rules, 379
Safety (see also Safety in US)
      reducing your risk, 371-73
      two most important factors, 413
Safety advocates, 402
Safety belts. See Belts
Safety in US, 381-90
      best in world, 381
      comparing 1979 and 2002, 381-90
      lack of institutions, 400-401
      technical knowledge irrelevant, 390
      which countries are aberrant, 389
Samuel Johnson, 9
Santayana, George, 401
Saudi Arabia, 2
Saved by the airbag, 312, 327
Scandinavian approach, 253
Scientific method, 16, 116, 240, 245, 247
Scotland (UK), 218, 219
Seaman, superior, 207
Seating position, 51
      fatality risks in different, 53, 54, 55
      occupants killed in different, 51-52
      rear seat for children, 324
      safety advantage of rear seat, 56
Second generation airbag, 311, 321-22, 326, 397
Secondary enforcement, 295, 297
Selective recruitment, 289-92, 293
Self-assessment by drivers, 361-64
Self-paced task, 195, 206
Senator John McCain, 401
Senses, 175
September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, 1
Severe crashes inferred, 154
      distance rate, 155
      license rate, 155
Severity-specific effectiveness, 273
Sex. See Gender; Terminology, gender
Shakespeare
      Hamlet, 5, 192, 347
      King Lear, 199, 340
      Macbeth, 244
Ships (see also Titanic)
      Carpathia, 3
      Wilhelm Gustloff, 5
SI system, 9
Side door beams, 114
Side impact, 164, 165
Simulators. See Driving simulators
Single-vehicle crashes, 48
      belt effectiveness, 282
      effect of mass, 85
      effect of SUV on car-driver risk, 94
      interpreting risk ratios, 85
Sinking of the Titanic. See Titanic
Size. See Vehicle mass and size
Skid marks, 209
Skill. See Driver performance
Slovak Republic, 43
Slovenia, 43
Smith, Captain Edward J., 3-4
Smoking, 223, 225, 226
      changing social norms, 342
      second-hand smoke, 414
      television advertising, 343
Snow, 98
      effect on distance fatality rate, 99
      effect on fatal crashes per day, 99
      snow states, 99
      snow-free states, 99
Sobriety checkpoints, 255
Social norms
      driver behavior, 338, 341
      smoking, 342
Socioeconomic status, 218
Son risk, 169, 170
South Africa, 43
South Carolina, 99, 100, 200
South Dakota, 200
Soviet Union, 404
Spacing between vehicles
      judgment of, 179
            influence of visible roadway, 180
Spain, 43
Speed (see also Relative speed; Speed-risk relationships), 407
      cause of crash, 36
      compared to drunk driving, 342
      compared to ?v, 214
      effect of alcohol, 245
      influence on risk, 209-16
            rural, 210
            urban, 209
      judgment of, 176
            blindfolded, 176
            cues for, 176
            factors influencing, 176
            geometric pattern influence, 176
            hearing restricted, 176
            obscured speedometer, 176
            peripheral vision restricted, 176
            prolonged freeway driving, 177
      percent crashes involving, 366
      reducing your risk, 374
      spillover effects, 177
      vehicle limit, 401
Speed adaptation, 177-78
Speed camera, 219
Speed limit
      100 km/h, 212, 215
      130 km/h, 215
      55 mph, 182
      55 mph rescission, 177
      60 km/h, 209
      80 km/h, 210
      90 km/h, 212
      claims of no effect on safety, 211
      effect of changing, 211, 212-14
      enforcement of, 211
      German Autobahns, 215
      Sweden, 211
Speed variance, 212, 215
Speed-risk relationships, 211
      comment on, 216
      risk of crash, 211
      risk of fatality, 211, 212
      risk of injury, 211
Spillover effects, 177
Sport utility vehicle. See SUV
Sports Car Club of America, 207
Sporty vehicles, 63
Standard error, 14
Statistical significance, 359
Striking vehicle, 68
Stringed musical instrument, 175, 190
Suicide, 224-25
      copycat, 6, 224
      excluded from FARS, 21
      male/female ratio, 45, 130, 224, 233
      not accidents, 6
      percent of traffic fatalities, 21, 225
Suicide seat, 132
Superior seaman, 207
Supersonic flight, 2
SUV, 76, 89, 90, 91, 94, 375, 401
      effect on risk to car drivers, 93
      tailgating by, 179
Sweden, 2, 41, 43, 187, 211, 215, 253, 341, 361, 362, 381, 385, 400, 404
Swim, 347
Switzerland, 295, 341, 381, 385
System-wide effects, 373

Tailgating, 220, 366, 367
      ABS, 110
Tailgating, continued
      by SUVs, 179
      causes of, 367, 368
      platoons, 368-69
      what lead driver can do, 370, 372
Tanzania, 43
Target vehicle, 68
Taxi drivers, 110, 220, 340
Taxi passengers, 339, 340
      increased risk from alcohol, 144
Technical knowledge, irrelevance of, 390
Technology, 36
      rear-impact crashes, 370
Technology/human interface, 4, 348
Teenage fatalities (see also Young drivers), 1
Telephone company vehicles, 185
Tennessee, 200
Term accident
      British Medical Journal prohibits term, 6
      NHTSA renames FARS, 6
      purposeful acts, 6
      reason for its appeal, 6
      reasons not to use, 6
Terminology (see also Term accident), 6
      airbag, 7
      car, 7
      casualties, 8
      cause, 7
      crash, 6
      data, 7
      driver, 7
      GB, 7
      gender, 7
      occupant, 7
      passenger car, 7
      traffic, 6
      traffic safety, 6
      UK, 7
Testicles, average per capita, 60
Testosterone, 230-33
      crash rates, 230
      crime rates, 230, 231
      measured in saliva, 231
Texas, 108, 200, 207, 208, 221
The Netherlands. See Netherlands
Third Reich, 404
Three levels of knowledge, 15
Three Mile Island, 340
Tires, 36
Titanic, 2-5, 7, 19
      Captain Edward J. Smith, 3-4
      movie, 4
      number of fatalities, 5
      number of survivors, 5
      photograph of wreck of, 3
Trackwidth, 78
Traffic. See Terminology, traffic
Traffic engineering. See Engineering, traffic
Traffic fatalities. See Fatalities
Traffic law. See Law enforcement
Traffic safety. See Terminology
Traffic tickets, 217-18
      African American, 217, 218
      non-Hispanic black, 218
Travel per vehicle per year, 40, 90, 91
Tri-level study, 336
Truck occupant fatalities, 45
Turkey, 43
Two-car crashes (see also Two-vehicle crashes; Vehicle mass and size)
      antilock brakes, 108
      definitions, 68
      fraction of fatalities due to, 68
      importance of, 68
      interpreting risk ratios, 76-77, 76-77
      laws of
            first, 69, 72
            second, 79
      used to investigate survivability versus gender and age, 140
Two-door vehicles
      belt effectiveness, 282
      distance rates, 66
      vehicle rates, 63-66
Two-vehicle crashes (see also Two-car crashes)
      by gender and age, 164, 165
      definitions, 67
      SUV, 76, 94
            effect on car-driver risk, 94

Unavoidable crashes, 364, 365
Unfamiliarity with vehicle, 196
United Kingdom. See GB (UK)
Units, 9
      billion, 9
      SI system, 9
Universal exaggeration factor, 278
Unlicensed driver, 149-50
      by gender and age, 151
      male-to-female ratio, 150
Unsafe at Any Speed, 390
Untrained researchers, 112
US. See Countries, US
US Congress ending 55 mph limit, 177
US Department of Transportation, 35, 62, 96, 97, 102, 103, 118, 173, 202, 203, 204, 205, 266, 267, 306, 307, 330, 358, 410
US Interstates. See Roads, Interstates, rural; Roads, Interstates, urban
US states
      Alabama, 200
      Alaska, 99, 100, 200
      Arizona, 200
      Arkansas, 200
      California, 13, 200
      Colorado, 200
      Connecticut, 200, 257
      Delaware, 200
      District of Columbia, 200
      Florida, 99, 100, 200, 207, 208
      Georgia, 99, 100, 200
      Hawaii, 99, 100, 200
      Idaho, 200, 253
      Illinois, 200, 246
      Indiana, 108, 200, 336
      Iowa, 200
      Kansas, 200
      Kentucky, 200
      Louisiana, 200, 299
      Maine, 99, 100, 200
      Maryland, 200
      Massachusetts, 200
      Michigan, 36, 199, 200, 246, 247, 367
      Minnesota, 99, 100, 200
      Mississippi, 200
      Missouri, 108, 200
      Montana, 99, 100, 200
      Nebraska, 200
      Nevada, 200
      New Hampshire, 200
      New Jersey, 2, 200
      New Mexico, 200
      New York, 1, 80, 200, 207, 208
      North Carolina, 80, 141, 200, 217, 225
      North Dakota, 99, 100, 200
      Ohio, 200
      Oklahoma, 200
      Oregon, 110, 200, 361
      Pennsylvania, 108, 200
      Rhode Island, 200, 299
      South Carolina, 99, 100, 200
      South Dakota, 200
      Tennessee, 200
      Texas, 108, 200, 207, 208, 221
      Utah, 200, 253
      Vermont, 99, 100, 200
      Virginia, 200
      Washington, 200
      West Virginia, 200
      Wisconsin, 200
      Wyoming, 99, 100, 200
US Supreme Court, 255
Useful field of view, 175
Utah, 200, 253

Vehicle aggressivity, 76
Vehicle choice, 63, 375
Vehicle factors, 63, 107
Vehicle following, 178
      tailgating, 220
Vehicle Identification Number (VIN), 67
Vehicle mass and size, Chapter 4
      belt effectiveness, 282
      causal roles of mass and size, 77-85
      changing mix of vehicles, 94
      curb mass, 67, 78
      distinction between weight and mass, 66
      influence of occupants, 67
      lighter and safer car, 84
      net effect on safety, 91
      relationship of, 77-79
      single-vehicle crashes, 85
            pedestrian fatality exposure approach, 86
      SUV, 76, 94
      Vehicle mass and size, continued two-car crashes, 68-85
            adding passenger, 79, 81
            causal roles of mass and size, 77-85
            driver effects, 73
            make car lighter and safer, 84
            model separating mass and size, 81-85
            replace car by heavier one, 83
            side impact, 74
      two-vehicle crashes, 68-85
            delta-v, 70
            driver fatality ratio, R, 68
            mass ratio, ?, 68
            Newtonian mechanics, 70, 71
            various vehicles, 75
Vehicle ownership rate. See Motorization
Vehicle size. See Vehicle mass and size
Vermont, 99, 100, 200
Victoria, Australia, 255, 295
Violinist, 22
Virginia, 200
Visual feedback, 174
Visual performance, 175
VMT. See Travel per vehicle per year

War, 6, 32, 41, 42, 264, 401
War on drugs, 264
Wardrop's principle, 112
Washington, DC, 1, 200
Weather
      injuries per fatality, 101
      number of vehicles per fatal crash, 101
      snow, 98
            effect on distance fatality rate, 99
            effect on fatal crashes per day, 99
West Virginia, 200
Wheelbase, 77
When used effectiveness, 273, 279
Whiplash, 29-31
      whiplash syndrome, 29
White Star Line, 4
Widmark, Erik, 241, 252
Widmark's Beta, 241
Wilhelm Gustloff, 5
William Haddon, Jr, 322
      10 strategies to reduce risks, 322
Wisconsin, 200
World population, 1
Wyoming, 99, 100, 200

Young drivers, 171
      compared to older, 169, 170
      lack of skill, 197
      parental influence, 225
      risk taking, 224
      teenage fatalities per day, 1
      threat to pedestrians, 156
Your risk. See Reducing your risk
Zeal, 116, 395, 407

Zimbabwe, 43